Positivism and its critique

2 C. Positivism and its critique

Positivism is an approach to studying sociology that aims at applying principles similar to those in natural sciences.

Comte, in his work, has described positivism in two ways:

1. Positivism as a doctrine (a philosophy).
2. Positivism as a method (research methodology).

Durkheim has used Positivism as a research methodology in his work. For him, the subject matter of sociology is social facts, and researchers should abandon all preconceived notions about them.

Sociology as a distinct discipline emerged in the 19th century as a reaction to European modernity. At that time, Science was celebrated in Europe. To establish the infant sociology as a serious discipline, it was necessary to model it along natural sciences. Thus, Positivism helped in the very survival of sociology in its early days.

Assumptions made by the positivist approach:

1. The behavior of man can be observed and measured objectively.
2. With such measurements, it will be possible to accurately predict human behavior.
3. Cause-effect relationships can be inferred, and theories can be devised to explain behavior.
4. Factors which cannot be observed, like meanings, feelings, or purposes, should not be considered. For example, marriage and procreation are observable facts, while underlying causes of marriage are not observable, and hence are inconsequential.

Positivist method:

1. Empiricism and observation.
2. Inductivism.
3. Reductional analysis.
4. Cause and effect relationships.

Thus, Positivism helps in sociological theory building and generalization. Through observation, a reliable body of data could be collected, the methods used could be standardized, and objectivity and value neutrality could be achieved.

Marxism is seen as a positivist approach as it sees human behavior as a reaction to the stimulus of the economic infrastructure, and so is Functionalism as it sees human behavior as a response to functional prerequisites.

Critique:

1. Human beings are complex and possess consciousness; hence, the method of studying inanimate matter cannot be applied to them.
2. The social action perspective of Weber argues that human beings do not just react to a stimulus. They do not behave, they act. It's important to observe and interpret subjective states of mind. Verstehen and Ideal Types should be used to supplement positivism.
3. Dilthey, Wildenberg, and others, which was later joined by Weber and Simmel, criticized the deterministic approach of Positivism. They replaced norms and structures.
4. Horkheimer criticized Positivism as a conservative philosophy that focuses on the status quo. It engages in objective anarchism. Truth is subject to changes and is not always quantifiable.
5. Habermas says that three types of knowledge exist - empirical analytical, hermeneutic historical, and critical - but Positivist method only talks about the first type, which is observable and superficial. Positivism is engaged in cognitive monopolization over truth, which is not acceptable in sociological research. It loses sight of the actors and reduces them to passive entities determined by natural forces.
6. Merton says overemphasizing on universal theories as done by Parsons is wrong, and sociology should focus on middle-range theories.
7. Phenomenologists like Peter Berger and Alfred Schutz reject generalizations and claim that Positivism is not concerned with sociology, but with making science out of sociology. Reality is not fixed but is made, dismantled, and remade. Humans make sense of reality by categorizing it, and statistics are simply the product of opinions of those who produce them. The most that can be done is to understand the meanings that particular individuals attach to a phenomenon.
8. Peter Berger in Sociology of Everyday Life - society is not a puppet theatre as viewed by positivists where humans react passively to external stimulus. They actively create their own meanings in interactions with others.
9. Interactionists like Mead and Blumer see actions and interactions as the driving force behind social actions. Anti-positivists reject both social structure and positivism.
10. Ethnomethodologists like Harold Garfinkel, using...
11. Postmodernists like Derrida and Foucault claim that reality can be studied in many ways and hence reject the metanarratives and grand theories that Positivism aims to build.
12. Myrdal - complete objectivity not desirable, Giddens - theory of structuration and double hermeneutics, Feyerabend - epistemological anarchism.
13. Karl Popper - positivism kills the critical spirit of science as it presumes hypotheses to be true and accordingly analyzes data. Marxism is a pseudo-scientific theory as it cannot be falsified.
14. Marxist and feminists also criticize it for status quo and ignoring conflict.
15. Neo-Marxist Adorno - positivism is negative dialectics.

Problems with Positivism:

1. Sometimes there is no empirical referent.
2. There is no laboratory setting to control variables.
3. Variables may change, as human behavior is not like matter.

Premise/postulates/assumptions of positivism - only scientific method, verificationism, empirical observation, external factors determine human behavior, objective consciousness, predictability of human behavior, reject any scope for speculation or interpretation. 3 basic postulates of positivists - fact-value dichotomy, ontological and epistemological stands, nature of subject matter of natural science and social science are the same.